Important Literary Works During the Gupta Perioc
Epics
Raghuvansa, Ritusamhara, Meghaduta - Kalidasa Ravanabodha - Batsabhatti
Kavyadarshana and Dasakumarcharita - Dandin Kiratarjuniyam - Bharavi
Nitishataka - Bhartahari
Dramas
Vikramovarshiya, Malavikagnimitra and Abhijnanasakuntalt
- Kalidasa Mrichchakatika - Sudaraka Swapnavasavadatta, Charudatta and Pratignayaugandharaya
- Bhasa
Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam - Visakhadatta
Eulogy
Prayag-Prasasti - Harisena
Philosophy
Sankhyakarika (based on Sankhya philosophy) - Ishwi
Krishna
Padartha Dharmasangraha (based on Vaisheshika philosoph~
- Acharya Prashastipada
Vyasa Bhasya (based on Yoga philosophy) - Acharya Vyasa Nyaya Bhasya (on Nyaya philosophy) - Vatsyayana
Religious Works
The two great epics, the Rnmayana and the Mahabharata,
were given final shape during the period.
Grammar
Amarakosha - Amarsimha
Chandravyakarana - Chandragomin
Kavyadarsha - Dandin
Narrative Story
Panchatantra and Hitopadesha - Vishnu Sharma
Smritis
Yajnavalkyasmriti, Parasharsmriti, Brihaspatismriti, Naradasmriti
and Katyayanasmriti
Mathematics and Astronomy
Aryabhattiya, Dashajitikasutra and Aryashtashata - Aryabhatta Brihatsamhita and Panchasidhantika - Varahmihira Brahmasidhanta - Brahmagupta
Miscellaneous Works
Nitisastra - Kamandaka
Kamsutra - Vatsyayana
Kavyalankara - Bhamah
Friday, November 27, 2009
LITERATURE
LITERATURE
The growing influence of brahmanical religion gave impe.tus to the development of Sanskrit which displa( Prakrit as the popular language. Most of the inscripti( now began to be written in Sanskrit, which became 1 official language of the Gupta empire. To this period belc the 13 plays of Bhasa and those of Kalidasa. Most of, plays of this period had happy endings. The higher clas are given dialogues in Sanskrit, while the lower clas speak Prakrit in these plays.
Kalidasa's Abhijnanasakuntal is considered to be one of the best hundred literary WOI in the world. The two great epics, the Ramayana and 1 Mahabharata, were compiled in this period. Of the Purall the earlier ones were finally compiled in the Gupta tim The period also saw the compilation of various Smritis the law hooks written in verse. The period is particula memorable for the compilation of Amarakosha by AmarsimJ who was a luminary in the court of Chandra Gupta il, a the Panchatantra. Sanskrit language developed an om style. From this period onwards we find greater empha on verse than on prose.
The growing influence of brahmanical religion gave impe.tus to the development of Sanskrit which displa( Prakrit as the popular language. Most of the inscripti( now began to be written in Sanskrit, which became 1 official language of the Gupta empire. To this period belc the 13 plays of Bhasa and those of Kalidasa. Most of, plays of this period had happy endings. The higher clas are given dialogues in Sanskrit, while the lower clas speak Prakrit in these plays.
Kalidasa's Abhijnanasakuntal is considered to be one of the best hundred literary WOI in the world. The two great epics, the Ramayana and 1 Mahabharata, were compiled in this period. Of the Purall the earlier ones were finally compiled in the Gupta tim The period also saw the compilation of various Smritis the law hooks written in verse. The period is particula memorable for the compilation of Amarakosha by AmarsimJ who was a luminary in the court of Chandra Gupta il, a the Panchatantra. Sanskrit language developed an om style. From this period onwards we find greater empha on verse than on prose.
ART AND CRAFTS
ART AND CRAFTS
There are only a few temples made of brick in Uttar Pradesh and a stone temple. The brick temples of the Gupta period include those of Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur and Deogarh in Jhansi. The Buddhist university at Nalanda was set up in the fifth century, and its earliest structure, made of brick, belongs to this period. In the history of temple architecture, the Gupta period is the formative and creative age heralding the two important styles, Nagara and Dravida. Of the stupas built during this period, the one at Mirpur Khas in Sind and Dhamekh at Sarnath deserve mention. Of the tall stupa ofSarnath near Varanasi, now little more than the inner core remains. It was once a most imposing structure of beautifully patterned brick-work with a high cylindrical upper dome rising from a lower hemispherical one, and with large images of the Buddha set in gable ends at the cardinal points.
The rock-cut architecture of the period is represented by the two conventional types-the chaitya and the vihara. They are mostly found atAjanta, Ellora and Bagh. The most characteristic feature of the chaitya is its emphasis on the colossal image of Buddha seated between two standing attendants. The vihara was planned in the form of rows of cells round a central court. The most numerous viharas are to be found at Ajanta. While retaining the essential features of the past, these caves are remarkable for the variety and beauty of the pillars as well as the fine fresco paintings with which the walls and ceilings are decorated.
There are no remains of free-standing Hindu temples erected before the Gupta period, though by this time they must long have been built in wood, clay and brick. From
the Gupta period, however, several examples survive, chiefly in western India, all showing the same general pattern. Pillars were usually ornate, with heavy bell-shaped capitals surmounted by animal motifs, and the entrances were often carved with mythological scenes and figures. All the Gupta temples were small, and most had flat roofs. Their masonry was held together without mortar, and was far larger and thicker than was necessary for the comparatively small buildings. The finest Gupta temple was that of Deogarh, in which iron dowels were used to hold the masonry together, and a small tower rose above the sanctum. The portal veranda was continued all round the building, making a covered walk.
It is in the domain of sculpture that the Gupta period marked great development. The Gupta sculpture suggests simplicity and serenity. An over two-metre high bronze image of the Buddha has been recovered from Sultanganj near Bhagalpur. According to Fa-Hsien there was an over 25-metre high image of the Buddha made of copper, but it is' not traceable now. In the Gupta period, beautiful images of the Buddha were fashioned at Sarnath and Mathura. For the first time in the Gupta period we get images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu gods. At many places we get a whole pantheon in which the chief god appears in the middle and his retainers and subordinate gods surround him on the panel. The leading god is represented large in size, but his retainers and subordinate gods are drawn on a smaller scale. The best specimens of Hindu sculpture are to be found in the Deogarh temple containing effective Hindu mythological themes of Rama, Vishnu and Narayana.
In the art of painting, the Gupta Age attained a high degree of proficiency. The specimens of Gupta paintings preserved in the Ajanta caves and the Bagh caves. . Ajanta caves adorned with best fresco paintings w constructed between the first and seventh centuries Paintings in six of the 29 caves have survived the rava of time. The subjects of these paintings are threef( relating to decoration, portraiture and narration. The dE rative designs include an infinite variety of animals, tr and flowers. Of the portraits the central figures are th of the various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. The narrat scenes mostly portray Jataka stories.
The murals of Aja vividly portray in panorama the whole human and nah. drama-the princes in their palaces, ladies in their hare] coolies carrying burdens over their shoulders, beggl peasants and ascetics, the flowering trees, beasts and bil The paintings at Bagh epitomise the Ajanta school. The d characteristics of Gupta art are refinement, simplicity expression, and religious virtuosity.
There are only a few temples made of brick in Uttar Pradesh and a stone temple. The brick temples of the Gupta period include those of Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur and Deogarh in Jhansi. The Buddhist university at Nalanda was set up in the fifth century, and its earliest structure, made of brick, belongs to this period. In the history of temple architecture, the Gupta period is the formative and creative age heralding the two important styles, Nagara and Dravida. Of the stupas built during this period, the one at Mirpur Khas in Sind and Dhamekh at Sarnath deserve mention. Of the tall stupa ofSarnath near Varanasi, now little more than the inner core remains. It was once a most imposing structure of beautifully patterned brick-work with a high cylindrical upper dome rising from a lower hemispherical one, and with large images of the Buddha set in gable ends at the cardinal points.
The rock-cut architecture of the period is represented by the two conventional types-the chaitya and the vihara. They are mostly found atAjanta, Ellora and Bagh. The most characteristic feature of the chaitya is its emphasis on the colossal image of Buddha seated between two standing attendants. The vihara was planned in the form of rows of cells round a central court. The most numerous viharas are to be found at Ajanta. While retaining the essential features of the past, these caves are remarkable for the variety and beauty of the pillars as well as the fine fresco paintings with which the walls and ceilings are decorated.
There are no remains of free-standing Hindu temples erected before the Gupta period, though by this time they must long have been built in wood, clay and brick. From
the Gupta period, however, several examples survive, chiefly in western India, all showing the same general pattern. Pillars were usually ornate, with heavy bell-shaped capitals surmounted by animal motifs, and the entrances were often carved with mythological scenes and figures. All the Gupta temples were small, and most had flat roofs. Their masonry was held together without mortar, and was far larger and thicker than was necessary for the comparatively small buildings. The finest Gupta temple was that of Deogarh, in which iron dowels were used to hold the masonry together, and a small tower rose above the sanctum. The portal veranda was continued all round the building, making a covered walk.
It is in the domain of sculpture that the Gupta period marked great development. The Gupta sculpture suggests simplicity and serenity. An over two-metre high bronze image of the Buddha has been recovered from Sultanganj near Bhagalpur. According to Fa-Hsien there was an over 25-metre high image of the Buddha made of copper, but it is' not traceable now. In the Gupta period, beautiful images of the Buddha were fashioned at Sarnath and Mathura. For the first time in the Gupta period we get images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu gods. At many places we get a whole pantheon in which the chief god appears in the middle and his retainers and subordinate gods surround him on the panel. The leading god is represented large in size, but his retainers and subordinate gods are drawn on a smaller scale. The best specimens of Hindu sculpture are to be found in the Deogarh temple containing effective Hindu mythological themes of Rama, Vishnu and Narayana.
In the art of painting, the Gupta Age attained a high degree of proficiency. The specimens of Gupta paintings preserved in the Ajanta caves and the Bagh caves. . Ajanta caves adorned with best fresco paintings w constructed between the first and seventh centuries Paintings in six of the 29 caves have survived the rava of time. The subjects of these paintings are threef( relating to decoration, portraiture and narration. The dE rative designs include an infinite variety of animals, tr and flowers. Of the portraits the central figures are th of the various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. The narrat scenes mostly portray Jataka stories.
The murals of Aja vividly portray in panorama the whole human and nah. drama-the princes in their palaces, ladies in their hare] coolies carrying burdens over their shoulders, beggl peasants and ascetics, the flowering trees, beasts and bil The paintings at Bagh epitomise the Ajanta school. The d characteristics of Gupta art are refinement, simplicity expression, and religious virtuosity.
SOCIETY AND RELIGION
SOCIETY AND RELIGION
The brahmanas became richer because of land grants, and claimed many privileges which are listed in the Naradasmriti (fifth century AD). There was a great increase in the number of castes and sub-castes with the large-scale absorption of foreigners and tribals. The position of the shudras improved slightly; they were permitted to listen to the epics and Puranas, to worship a new god called Krishna, and to perform certain domestic rites such as probably paying fees to the priests. Shudras were now considered as agriculturists rather than servants and slaves. But the untouchables increased in number, especially the chandalas. According to Fa-Hsien, they had to face many disabilities. They lived outside the village and dealt in meat and flesh. They were not allowed to enter the town as they were considered polluted. Women's position declined.
Disallowed formal education and inheritance of property, they were married early. Widow marriage was disallowed. The first reference to sati appears in Gupta times in AD 510 at Eran.
Buddhism no longer received royal patronage, though according to Fa-Hsien Buddhism was in a very flourishing state. Bhagavatism or Vaishnavism overshadowed Mahayana Buddhism by the time of the Guptas. By the sixth century, Vishnu became a member of the trinity of gods along with Siva and Brahma. A few Gupta kings were worshippers of Siva, but Siva does not seem to have been as important as Vishnu in the early Gupta period. Idol worship in the temples became a common feature of Hindusim from the Gupta period onwards. Many festivals also came to be celebrated. Agricultural festivals observed by different classes of people were given a religious garb and colour, and turned into good sources of income for the priest. Religious toleration was, however, prevalent.
The Shakti cult gave rise to consorts to gods, and goddesses like Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, etc. appeared. Tantricism also became popular in the fifth century. The schools of Hindu philosophy were enunciated in this period. By the fourth century AD Bhagvadgita was finally compiled, which taught devotion to Lord Krishna and stressed the performance of the functions assigned to each varna. Henceforth, the concept of bhakti developed; worship superseded sacrifice.
The brahmanas became richer because of land grants, and claimed many privileges which are listed in the Naradasmriti (fifth century AD). There was a great increase in the number of castes and sub-castes with the large-scale absorption of foreigners and tribals. The position of the shudras improved slightly; they were permitted to listen to the epics and Puranas, to worship a new god called Krishna, and to perform certain domestic rites such as probably paying fees to the priests. Shudras were now considered as agriculturists rather than servants and slaves. But the untouchables increased in number, especially the chandalas. According to Fa-Hsien, they had to face many disabilities. They lived outside the village and dealt in meat and flesh. They were not allowed to enter the town as they were considered polluted. Women's position declined.
Disallowed formal education and inheritance of property, they were married early. Widow marriage was disallowed. The first reference to sati appears in Gupta times in AD 510 at Eran.
Buddhism no longer received royal patronage, though according to Fa-Hsien Buddhism was in a very flourishing state. Bhagavatism or Vaishnavism overshadowed Mahayana Buddhism by the time of the Guptas. By the sixth century, Vishnu became a member of the trinity of gods along with Siva and Brahma. A few Gupta kings were worshippers of Siva, but Siva does not seem to have been as important as Vishnu in the early Gupta period. Idol worship in the temples became a common feature of Hindusim from the Gupta period onwards. Many festivals also came to be celebrated. Agricultural festivals observed by different classes of people were given a religious garb and colour, and turned into good sources of income for the priest. Religious toleration was, however, prevalent.
The Shakti cult gave rise to consorts to gods, and goddesses like Lakshmi, Parvati, Durga, etc. appeared. Tantricism also became popular in the fifth century. The schools of Hindu philosophy were enunciated in this period. By the fourth century AD Bhagvadgita was finally compiled, which taught devotion to Lord Krishna and stressed the performance of the functions assigned to each varna. Henceforth, the concept of bhakti developed; worship superseded sacrifice.
ECONOMY
ECONOMY
In ancient India, the Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins, which were called dinaras in their inscriptions but they were not a common currency. After the conquest of Gujarat, the Guptas issued a good number of silver coins., mainly for local exchange. Cowries, according to FaHsien, became a common medium of exchange. In contrast to those of the Kushanas, the Gupta coppers are very few. Compared to the earlier period we notice a decline in longdistance trade. South-East Asia gained importance as a centre for Indian trade. After AD 550 the trade with the Roman empire slackened. The striking development of the Gupta period, especially in Madhya Pradesh, was the emergence of priestly landlords at the cost of local peasants. Peasants were sometimes subjected to forced labour.
The commodities for export continued to be more or less the same as before, but items of import now included Chinese silk in greater quantity and ivory from Ethiopia. Horses too were imported in great number from Arabia, Bactria and Iran. Cities like Banares. Thaneswar and Mathura came into prominence.
In ancient India, the Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins, which were called dinaras in their inscriptions but they were not a common currency. After the conquest of Gujarat, the Guptas issued a good number of silver coins., mainly for local exchange. Cowries, according to FaHsien, became a common medium of exchange. In contrast to those of the Kushanas, the Gupta coppers are very few. Compared to the earlier period we notice a decline in longdistance trade. South-East Asia gained importance as a centre for Indian trade. After AD 550 the trade with the Roman empire slackened. The striking development of the Gupta period, especially in Madhya Pradesh, was the emergence of priestly landlords at the cost of local peasants. Peasants were sometimes subjected to forced labour.
The commodities for export continued to be more or less the same as before, but items of import now included Chinese silk in greater quantity and ivory from Ethiopia. Horses too were imported in great number from Arabia, Bactria and Iran. Cities like Banares. Thaneswar and Mathura came into prominence.
ADMINISTRATION
ADMINISTRATION
The period of the Imperial Guptas has often been described as the golden age of ancient India, at least in north India. There was consolidation of a large part of northern India under one political umbrella, and it ushered an era of orderly government and progress.
An efficient administration was established in the Gupta empire. All the powers were concentrated with the king. Often an element of divinity was attached to the kings and they were looked upon as gods. Though the king possessed extensive powers he did not rule in a tyrannical manner. A council of ministers and several civil officials assisted the king. The king acted as the fountainhead of justice and decided all disputes. In general, punishments were light and mild. During the Gupta period income was from 18 sources; the greater part of it was spent on works of public welfare. Land revenue which was the chief source was generally fixed at one-sixth of the produce. The police arrangements were so efficient that travellers experienced no difficulty or danger from thieves on their journey. The Gupta rulers had organised a huge army. The country was divided into several provinces (bhuktis) which were further divided into a number of districts (visyas). The local units enjoyed much liberty and independence.
The king adopted pompous titles such as parameshvara, maharajadhiraja and parambhattaraka. This implies that they ruled over lesser kings. Kingship was hereditary but there was not a firm practice of primogeniture. The goddess Lakshmi is represented invariably on the Gupta coins as the wife of Vishnu with whom the kings were compared by the brahmanas.
The king's standing army was supplemented by the forces occasionally supplied by the feudatories. Chariots receded into the background, and cavalry came to the forefront. Horse archery became prominent in military tactics.
For the first time civil and criminal law were clearly defined and demarcated. The most important officers in the Gupta empire were the kumaramatyas. Several offices came to be confined in the hands of the same person, and posts became hereditary. The royal seal bore the imprint of garuda.
Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, the practice of granting land and fiscal and administrative concessions to priests and administrators became a regular affair in the Gupta times.
The period of the Imperial Guptas has often been described as the golden age of ancient India, at least in north India. There was consolidation of a large part of northern India under one political umbrella, and it ushered an era of orderly government and progress.
An efficient administration was established in the Gupta empire. All the powers were concentrated with the king. Often an element of divinity was attached to the kings and they were looked upon as gods. Though the king possessed extensive powers he did not rule in a tyrannical manner. A council of ministers and several civil officials assisted the king. The king acted as the fountainhead of justice and decided all disputes. In general, punishments were light and mild. During the Gupta period income was from 18 sources; the greater part of it was spent on works of public welfare. Land revenue which was the chief source was generally fixed at one-sixth of the produce. The police arrangements were so efficient that travellers experienced no difficulty or danger from thieves on their journey. The Gupta rulers had organised a huge army. The country was divided into several provinces (bhuktis) which were further divided into a number of districts (visyas). The local units enjoyed much liberty and independence.
The king adopted pompous titles such as parameshvara, maharajadhiraja and parambhattaraka. This implies that they ruled over lesser kings. Kingship was hereditary but there was not a firm practice of primogeniture. The goddess Lakshmi is represented invariably on the Gupta coins as the wife of Vishnu with whom the kings were compared by the brahmanas.
The king's standing army was supplemented by the forces occasionally supplied by the feudatories. Chariots receded into the background, and cavalry came to the forefront. Horse archery became prominent in military tactics.
For the first time civil and criminal law were clearly defined and demarcated. The most important officers in the Gupta empire were the kumaramatyas. Several offices came to be confined in the hands of the same person, and posts became hereditary. The royal seal bore the imprint of garuda.
Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, the practice of granting land and fiscal and administrative concessions to priests and administrators became a regular affair in the Gupta times.
DECLINE
DECLINE
The line of succession after Skanda Gupta is uncertain. Puru Gupta, a son of Kumara Gupta by the chief queen, ruled for some time and was succeeded by his son Budha Gupta whose earliest known date is AD 477 and the latest AD 495. But a king named Kumara Gupta II is known to have reigned in AD 474. This indicates internal dissension which continued after the end of Budha Gupta's reign.
At the close of the fifth century AD fresh Huna inroads occurred, and this time were even more difficult to repel. The empire was disunited, and no strong man of the calibre of Skanda Gupta came forward to drive out the invaders For some 30 years, from AD 500 onwards, western India was in the hands of the Huna kings, two of whom, Toramana and his son Mihirakula, were apparently mighty monarchs and had advanced up to Gwalior and Eran (Madhya Pradesh). Mihirakula is remembered by Hiuen Tsang as a
fierce persecutor of Buddhism, and in Kashmir, one of the centres of his power, memories of his sadistic tyranny were still alive in the twelfth century, when they were recorded by the historian Kalhana.
At this grave crisis rose a great warrior named Yasodharman (AD 530-540) whose family ruled as feudatories of the Guptas in Malwa. He not only defeated Mihirakula and stopped the advance of the Hunas, but also destroyed the Gupta empire. His official record engraved in duplicate on two pillars at Mandasor, claims that his suzerainty was acknowledged over the vast area bounded by the Himalayas, the Brahmaputra, the Mahendra mountains in the Ganjam district, and the Arabian Sea, and that he was lord of territories not possessed by the Hunas and even by the Guptas. This may be a boast, but undoubtedly the Gupta empire was practically destroyed by the victories of Yasodharman. But Yasodharman's large kingdom did not survive his death. Though Mihirakula apparently retained his hold on Kashmir and parts of the North-West, Huna power never again seriously threatened India, and the Hunas soon lost their individuality.
Though shorn of power and prestige, traces of the Gupta empire still remained. Narasimha Gupta survived Yasodharman and probably drove out the Hunas from the Ganga valley. However, no trace of Gupta rule exists after AD 550.
The break-up of the Gupta empire was followed by the rise of a number of independent states. Magadha was ruled by a line of kings with names ending with Gupta. They are called the Later Guptas in order to distinguish them from the Imperial Guptas. The Later Guptas ruled in Magadha till the eighth century.
The line of succession after Skanda Gupta is uncertain. Puru Gupta, a son of Kumara Gupta by the chief queen, ruled for some time and was succeeded by his son Budha Gupta whose earliest known date is AD 477 and the latest AD 495. But a king named Kumara Gupta II is known to have reigned in AD 474. This indicates internal dissension which continued after the end of Budha Gupta's reign.
At the close of the fifth century AD fresh Huna inroads occurred, and this time were even more difficult to repel. The empire was disunited, and no strong man of the calibre of Skanda Gupta came forward to drive out the invaders For some 30 years, from AD 500 onwards, western India was in the hands of the Huna kings, two of whom, Toramana and his son Mihirakula, were apparently mighty monarchs and had advanced up to Gwalior and Eran (Madhya Pradesh). Mihirakula is remembered by Hiuen Tsang as a
fierce persecutor of Buddhism, and in Kashmir, one of the centres of his power, memories of his sadistic tyranny were still alive in the twelfth century, when they were recorded by the historian Kalhana.
At this grave crisis rose a great warrior named Yasodharman (AD 530-540) whose family ruled as feudatories of the Guptas in Malwa. He not only defeated Mihirakula and stopped the advance of the Hunas, but also destroyed the Gupta empire. His official record engraved in duplicate on two pillars at Mandasor, claims that his suzerainty was acknowledged over the vast area bounded by the Himalayas, the Brahmaputra, the Mahendra mountains in the Ganjam district, and the Arabian Sea, and that he was lord of territories not possessed by the Hunas and even by the Guptas. This may be a boast, but undoubtedly the Gupta empire was practically destroyed by the victories of Yasodharman. But Yasodharman's large kingdom did not survive his death. Though Mihirakula apparently retained his hold on Kashmir and parts of the North-West, Huna power never again seriously threatened India, and the Hunas soon lost their individuality.
Though shorn of power and prestige, traces of the Gupta empire still remained. Narasimha Gupta survived Yasodharman and probably drove out the Hunas from the Ganga valley. However, no trace of Gupta rule exists after AD 550.
The break-up of the Gupta empire was followed by the rise of a number of independent states. Magadha was ruled by a line of kings with names ending with Gupta. They are called the Later Guptas in order to distinguish them from the Imperial Guptas. The Later Guptas ruled in Magadha till the eighth century.
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